by Yiling Yun

This piece was originally written two years ago, in the fall of 2022. At the time, I hesitated to share it publicly while events were still unfolding, but now, in hindsight, I’d like to offer it as an exploration of how meaningful experiences can connect deeply personal moments to broader psychological theories.

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It’s been a few weeks since protests erupted in China against the government’s zero-COVID policies. For nearly three years, these policies have kept people grounded, impacting businesses and individuals’ mental health in profound ways. The public’s anger escalated after reports of a tragic fire in Urumqi claimed the lives of at least ten people. Due to COVID-related restrictions, fire trucks couldn’t reach the scene in time. In response, hundreds around the world held vigils to honor the victims and call for freedom. Many were Chinese international students, and their presence at these vigils became a powerful collective voice. I attended one at UCLA, where people gathered around the Bruin statue, placing candles in solemn remembrance. Attendees, dressed in dark clothing and wearing masks, stood together as the wind extinguished some candles. Kneeling, I relit them, a small gesture in a larger moment. We stood there, in silence and solidarity, as some shared their experiences. Though I took no photos to protect others’ privacy, this experience remains a defining moment for me—a memory I will always carry.

During these vigils, many recalled the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, an event long suppressed by Chinese censorship. Witnessing this connection between past and present events, I began to wonder how memory serves to link people across time and space. I became particularly interested in how humans remember significant historical events and the lasting impact of these memories on individuals and communities alike.

Flashbulb Memories: How Historical Events Shape Personal Recollections

One influential area of research that links historical events to personal memory is the concept of flashbulb memory, first proposed by Brown and Kulik in 1977. Flashbulb memory describes how, when an extremely surprising or impactful event occurs, people recall not only the details of the event itself but also the circumstances in which they first learned of it. A classic example is the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Many people remember not only facts about the assassination but also where they were, what they were doing, and who they were with when they first heard the news. Flashbulb memory extends beyond public events to include personal experiences, like the passing of a close family member. The term flashbulb memory suggests that, when such an event happens, it captures a mental “snapshot” of the moment—though, unlike an actual photograph, memory remains incomplete and sometimes inaccurate.

Brown and Kulik hypothesized that flashbulb memories are created based on two main factors: the event’s unexpectedness and its consequentiality. Flashbulb memories are most likely to form when an event is both surprising and consequential to the person. In their study, Brown and Kulik asked participants to recall the circumstances in which they first learned about ten highly surprising events. The list included nine historical events, many of which were public figure assassinations, and one personal event. The participants, who were both Black and White, were also asked to rate the impact of each event on a scale from 1 to 5.

The results showed that people nearly always had flashbulb memories of these impactful events. Participants typically recalled certain key details, like their location, what they were doing, who informed them, and what happened afterward. These were termed canonical categories: the place, the ongoing event, the informant, and the aftermath, respectively. Interestingly, they also recalled idiosyncratic details unique to their personal experience. Moreover, Black participants were more likely to have flashbulb memories of events involving Black public figures and rated these events as more consequential.

This study illustrates how historical events can deeply intertwine with personal memory, creating a shared yet individually unique recollection of important moments. It also highlights that people are more strongly affected by events with cultural or personal relevance, suggesting that our connection to history is both collective and profoundly personal.

Cultural Schemata: Providing Internal Structure for Memory

We all live within cultural frameworks. When we communicate with others, we share values; when we read the news or visit museums, we learn from institutions. These interactions help build collective memories. According to Hirst and colleagues (2018), collective memory encompasses not only public symbols and representations but also the shared individual memories within a community. One guiding principle of collective memory is that memories with structured organization are easier to remember. This structure, known as cultural schema, develops through social interactions among individuals and through connections with institutions. Together, these cultural schemata shape how people interpret the past and envision the future (Beim, 2007).

Schemata influence our perceptions and aid memory retention. For example, Goodman (1980) conducted a behavioral study exploring how action-based schemata affect memory. Participants viewed pictures depicting various actions and were asked to recognize details of items that were either highly relevant or minimally relevant to each action. For the action of reading, for instance, a highly relevant item might be a bookshelf filled with books, while a less relevant item could be a plant. Results showed that people struggled to recall details of highly relevant items, suggesting that strong associations with the action schema allow people to focus less on item-specific details. Furthermore, in a recall test, participants were better at recalling highly relevant items. This indicates that an action schema can create an internal structure that shapes how we perceive a scene and supports memory retention.

When it comes to learning about historically significant events, each person’s cultural background provides a schema that influences their understanding of the past. However, memories based on schemata can be resistant to change, even if inaccurate. For example, when misinformation about the Iraq War was later corrected, people from different cultural groups responded to the correction differently. Those who were certain of the war’s motives tended to ignore the correction and maintained their original beliefs, while those who were skeptical of the motives were more open to updating their memories (Lewandowsky et al., 2005). This example highlights the need to be cautious, as our memories may rely heavily on cultural schemata that could be biased.

Emotions: Enhancing and Altering Memory

When witnessing historically significant events, we often experience strong emotions that can intensify our memories of these moments. Neurologically, the amygdala—the brain region involved in processing emotions—plays a key role in enhancing memory for emotionally arousing events over the long term. In a study by Cahill et al. (1996), researchers showed participants emotionally arousing and neutral videos, then tested their recall a few days later. They found a strong correlation between activity in the right amygdala and the recall of emotionally charged videos. However, no such correlation existed between amygdala activity and the recall of neutral videos, highlighting how emotional arousal strengthens our long-term memory of events.

These findings underscore the complexity of memory when individuals face impactful social events. A major limitation in studying memory of historical events, however, is the difficulty of verifying whether people’s recollections are accurate or influenced by retroactive distortions. As time passes, it becomes harder to gauge if people experience retrograde amnesia when recalling memories from many years ago. Nevertheless, examining memory within cultural and social contexts remains valuable, as our cultural environment shapes the lens through which we view the world and construct new memories. As social beings, our emotions further influence and, at times, reshape our memories. Recognizing these potential biases can help us reflect critically on our recollections of history.

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Now, with COVID largely behind us, we continue to experience events that stir strong emotions. These moments are not limited to any one community; people worldwide have identities and memories that can be triggered by a variety of events. It’s valuable to stay mindful of our emotions and reactions, taking a moment to reflect on the personal significance these events hold for us. By doing so, we can better understand how our experiences shape us and influence the way we remember history.

References

Beim, A. (2007). The cognitive aspects of collective memory. Symbolic Interaction, 30(1), 7-26.

Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5(1), 73-99.

Cahill, L., Haier, R. J., Fallon, J., Alkire, M. T., Tang, C., Keator, D., … & Mcgaugh, J. L. (1996). Amygdala activity at encoding correlated with long-term, free recall of emotional information. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(15), 8016-8021.

Goodman, G. S. (1980). Picture memory: How the action schema affects retention. Cognitive Psychology, 12(4), 473-495.

Hirst, W., Yamashiro, J. K., & Coman, A. (2018). Collective memory from a psychological perspective. Trends in cognitive sciences, 22(5), 438-451.

Lewandowsky, S., Stritzke, W. G., Oberauer, K., & Morales, M. (2005). Memory for fact, fiction, and misinformation: The Iraq War 2003. Psychological Science, 16(3), 190-195.

McFarland, C., & Alvaro, C. (2000). The impact of motivation on temporal comparisons: coping with traumatic events by perceiving personal growth. Journal of personality and social psychology, 79(3), 327.